Current Study

In order to more closely examine female student-athletes’ experience with gender norms that operate within sport, we explored conformity to masculine and feminine norms and the role of this conformity in perceptions of body image. The first purpose of our study was to determine if female student-athletes differed from female college students in their conformity to gender norms. Our first hypothesis was that, when compared to female students, female student-athletes would report lower levels of conformity to feminine norms. When compared to female nonathletes self-perceptions of masculinity, female athletes have reported that they perceive themselves to be more masculine (Miller & Levy, 1996). Additionally, in com- parison to the self-perceptions of femininity re- ported by female athletes, the female nonathletes in this sample reported higher self- perceptions of being feminine. Thus, when combined with past research, our hypothesis was based on female student-athletes participating in a context (i.e., sport) which exposes them to a socialization process that values tradition- ally masculine characteristics (e.g., aggression, competition, toughness; Sabo, 1985; Whannel, 2007; Whitson, 1994), thus decreasing the likelihood that they will conform closely to feminine norms.
Our second hypothesis was that female student-athletes would report higher levels of conformity to masculine norms than their nonathlete peers. In addition to the influence of sport’s traditionally masculine values mentioned above, the power structure of sport may also contribute to greater conformity to masculine norms among female student-athletes. Although there is greater representation of female athletes at most levels of sports since Title IX was enacted in 1972, there has also been a significant increase in male head coaches of women’s team (Acosta & Carpenter, 2008). The ability of men to maintain and control positions of leadership in sport (e.g., head coach, athletic director) can serve to reinforce a culture of hegemonic masculinity (e.g., Whisenant, 2008). Given the highly influential role that coaches have in the athletic environment (Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007; Steinfeldt et al., 2010), this dynamic may continue to reinforce sport as a male domain so that gender socialization within sport for female athletes may have a more masculine perspective. As a result, we hypothesized that female student-athletes may conform to more traditional masculine norms than their nonathlete female peers.
The second purpose of our study was to examine the relationship between conformity to these gender norms, participation in intercollegiate sport, and perceptions of body image. Subsequently, our third hypothesis was that athlete status, conformity to gender norms, and self- perceptions of body dissatisfaction would predict body esteem. Specifically, we predicted that being an athlete and having less body dis- satisfaction would result in greater body esteem. Research has demonstrated a relationship be- tween sport participation and feelings of bodily competence, empowerment, self-esteem, and control over one’s life (Blinde, Taub, & Han, 1993; Krane et al., 2004; Richman & Shaffer, 2000; Ross & Shinew, 2008). Additionally, and consistent with past research (e.g., Green et al., 2008; Mahalik et al., 2005a), we predicted that higher conformity to the feminine norms of Thinness and Invest in Appearance would predict lower levels of body esteem.