Contextual Influences on Gender Norms in Sport

Despite this emerging body of research on conformity to gender norms, little empirical attention has been devoted to how these norms operate in sport, even though sport is considered a significant contextual influence on the construction of gender roles among athletes (Mess- ner, 1992; Messner, 2002). In fact, sport has been promoted in the United States as a response to cultural circumstances viewed as threatening concepts of masculinity and to ensure that boys learned how to be traditionally masculine (Coakley, 2009). Athletes are often exposed to attributes that are typically associated with traditional masculine traits, such as individualism, competitiveness, aggressiveness, power, strength, and toughness (Beal, 1996; Wellard, 2002). Thus, participation in sport may contribute to an athlete internalizing values and aspects of masculinity that are reinforced and rewarded within the athletic context.
While athletic participation provides male athletes with distinct masculinity messages, female athletes receive gender role messages within the athletic domain that are not always in line with societal norms of femininity. Beal (1996) reported that female athletes have “internalized the dominant ideology of sport as a male social role” (p. 212). Thus, sport as a male dominated setting has influenced female athletes’ negotiation of their position in sport and continues to reflect traditional gendered hegemonic practices that promote conformity to gender role norms (Beal, 1996; Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, & Kauer 2004; Meaˆn & Kassing, 2008; Ross & Shinew, 2008). Female athletes are confronted with the dilemma that in order to be successful in athletics they have to develop characteristics associated with masculinity (e.g., strength, competitiveness, assertiveness, independence; Krane, 2001). By participating in sport, women often develop their athletic identity using standards of traditional male athleticism, yet at the same time attempt to manage expectations of maintaining culturally desirable aspects of femininity (e.g., attractiveness, heterosexuality, relationships). Subsequently, female athletes often experience difficulty in conforming to culturally defined standards of traditional femininity that are often incompatible with notions of being athletic. Female athletes have reported that they perceive themselves as being different from their nonathlete female peers and that they perceive them- selves to have characteristics that are similar to men (Krane et al., 2004; Meaˆn & Kassing, 2008; Miller & Levy, 1996; Ross & Shinew, 2008).
The desire to be successful in sport may contribute to contemporary female athletes valuing traits that are associated with masculinity (e.g., strength, competition, power, muscularity), while also expressing pride in their athletic bodies, strength, and sense of empowerment (Ross & Shinew, 2008). However, the physical manifestation (i.e., muscularity) of this paradox provides further challenges to female athletes because, “Ideally, sportswomen have toned bodies, yet they must also avoid excessive, masculine-perceived, muscular bodies” (Krane et al., 2004, p. 317). Thus, while women in general face body image pressures in society, women who play sports often face unique additional constraints concerning body image based on the pressures to conform to gender norms, both masculine and feminine.